Solar Cell Fabrication Using Extrusion Mask

ABSTRACT

Large-area ICs (e.g., silicon wafer-based solar cells) are produced by positioning a mask between an extrusion head and the IC wafer during extrusion of a dopant bearing material or metal gridline material. The mask includes first and second peripheral portions that are positioned over corresponding peripheral areas of the wafer, and a central opening that exposes a central active area of the wafer. The extrusion head is then moved relative to the wafer, and the extrusion material is continuously extruded through outlet orifices of the extrusion head to form elongated extruded structures on the active area of the wafer. The mask prevents deposition of the extrusion material along the peripheral edges of the wafer, and facilitates the formation of unbroken extrusion structures. The mask may be provided with a non-rectangular opening to facilitate the formation of non-rectangular (e.g., circular) two-dimensional extrusion patterns.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/609,787, entitled “Solar Cell Fabrication Using Extrusion Mask” filed Dec. 12, 2006.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to the conversion of light irradiation to electrical energy, more particularly, to methods and tools for producing photovoltaic devices (solar cells) that convert solar energy to electrical energy.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Solar cells are typically photovoltaic devices that convert sunlight directly into electricity. Solar cells typically include a semiconductor (e.g., silicon) wafer (substrate) that absorbs light irradiation (e.g., sunlight) in a way that creates free electrons, which in turn are caused to flow in the presence of a built-in field to create direct current (DC) power. The DC power generated by several solar cells may be collected on a grid placed on the cell. Solar cells are typically made using round silicon wafers that are doped to include one or more n-type doped regions, and one or more p-type doped regions. Such solar cells (also known as silicon wafer-based solar cells) are currently the dominant technology in the commercial production of solar cells, and are the main focus of the present invention.

A desirable solar cell geometry, commonly referred to as the integrated back contact (IBC) cell, consists of a semiconductor wafer, such as silicon, and alternating lines (interdigitated stripes) of p-type and n-type doping. This cell architecture has the advantage that all of the electrical contacts to the p and n regions can be made to one side of the wafer. When the wafers are connected together into a module, the wiring is all done from one side. Device structure and fabrication means for this device have been described previously in co-owned and co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/336,714 entitled “Solar Cell Production Using Non-Contact Patterning and Direct-Write Metallization”, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

One method for forming the alternately doped line regions in an IBC solar cell is to dispose dopant bearing pastes of alternating dopant type on the wafer, and then to heat the wafer with the appropriate temperature profile to drive in the dopants. Solar cell doping and the patterning of doped regions is typically carried out with costly steps that may include the use of barrier deposition, barrier patterning, laser processing, damage removal, and gas phase furnace diffusion. One could also generate the desired doped interdigitated doped regions using screen printing techniques. However, a distinct disadvantage of screen printing is that two separate print operations would be needed to write the two dopant bearing materials, and the two prints would need to be exquisitely well registered. Moreover, screen printing requires contact with the wafer, which increases the risk of wafer damage (breakage), thus increasing overall production costs. In addition, the first screen printed layer needs to be dried before a second screen print step is applied.

The state of the art for metallizing silicon wafer-based solar cells for terrestrial deployment is screen printing. Screen printing has been used for decades, but as cell manufacturers look to improve cell efficiency and lower cost by going to thinner wafers, the screen printing process is becoming a limitation. The screen printers run at a rate of about 1800 wafers per hour and the screens last about 5000 wafers. The failure mode often involves screen and wafer breakage. This means that the tools go down every couple of hours, and require frequent operator intervention. Moreover, the printed features are limited to about 100 microns, and the material set is limited largely to silver and aluminum metallizations.

The desired but largely unavailable features in a wafer-processing tool for making solar cells are as follows: (a) never breaks a wafer—e.g. non contact; (b) one second processing time (i.e., 3600 wafers/hour); (c) large process window; and (d) 24/7 operation other than scheduled maintenance less than one time per week. The desired but largely unavailable features in a low-cost metal semiconductor contact for solar cells are as follows: (a) Minimal contact area—to avoid surface recombination; (b) Shallow contact depth—to avoid shunting or otherwise damaging the cell's pn junction; (c) Low contact resistance to lightly doped silicon; and (d) High aspect metal features (for front contacts to avoid grid shading while providing low resistance to current flow).

What is needed is a method and processing system for producing photovoltaic devices (solar cells) that overcomes the deficiencies of the conventional approach described above by both reducing the manufacturing costs and complexity, and improving the operating efficiency of the resulting photovoltaic devices.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to a system and method for producing large-area ICs (e.g., silicon wafer-based solar cells) in which a mask (e.g., plastic/metallic film or paper mask) is disposed between an extrusion head and the large-area IC substrate (wafer) during extrusion of at least one of a dopant bearing material and metal gridline material (collectively referred to below as “extruded material”). The mask includes at least one of a first peripheral portion and a second peripheral portion, and a (central) opening defined along inside edges of the at least one peripheral portions (e.g., between the peripheral portions). The mask is aligned over the wafer such that the peripheral portions are positioned over corresponding peripheral areas of the wafer, and the central opening is positioned over a central active area of the wafer. The extrusion head is then moved relative to the wafer, and the extrusion material is continuously extruded through outlet orifices of the extrusion head in order to form elongated extruded structures on the active area of the wafer. By masking at least one of the peripheral areas of the wafer, deposition of the extrusion material along the masked peripheral edge of the wafer is prevented, thus avoiding a potential short circuit between the opposing surfaces of the wafer. In addition, by masking at least one of the leading and trailing edges of the wafer, the extrusion process can be initiated and stabilized prior to reaching the central area of the wafer, and/or terminated after the extrusion head has passed over the active area, thereby avoiding fragmentation of the extruded structure that can occur when extrusion is initiated and/or terminated over the wafer.

In accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a system for producing large area IC devices (e.g., silicon wafer-based solar cells) includes forming desired doped regions in surface of a semiconductor substrate, forming a passivation layer over the substrate surface, utilizing a laser ablation or other non-contact apparatus to form contact openings in the passivation layer, utilizing a direct-write metallization apparatus to deposit contact structures in the contact openings, and then forming metallization lines on the passivation layer. In one specific embodiment, dopant bearing material is extruded through a mask in the manner described above, and then thermally treated to generate doped regions in the semiconductor substrate, thereby avoiding the problems associated with conventional screen printing techniques utilized to produce doped regions in conventional solar cells. In addition, the extrusion method described above is utilized to form the metal gridlines that operably connect the contact structures in a manner that greatly reduces the cost and complexity over conventional screen printing metallization methods. Further, by combining the non-contact processing methods set forth above, the present invention facilitates the reliable production of solar cells with minimal wafer breakage.

In accordance with an aspect of the present invention, the reliable and economic production of non-rectangular (e.g., round) solar cells is greatly facilitated by forming the mask opening to match the desired active area of the wafer. Conventional extrusion heads do not typically provide separate control over the multiple outlet orifices, making extrusion only in the central portion of a circular wafer impossible. However, by providing a mask with a circular opening that is centered over the wafer, a conventional extrusion head is reliably used to form extruded structures only in the circular active area. Similar techniques may be used to form desired extruded structures, e.g., in an octagonal (or other non-rectangular) active region.

In accordance with various embodiments, the mask may be mounted directly onto the wafer, mounted to a carrier supporting the wafer, suspended between the wafer and the extrusion head, or mounted to the extrusion head. In one embodiment, a series of masks are linked together into a single belt that is trained between opposing spools that wind clean masks over the each successive wafer. In one embodiment, a first (large) mask opening is used to position the wafer, and then a second (smaller) mask opening is positioned over the central active area of the wafer prior to the extrusion process. A third (larger) mask opening may be used to then remove the processed wafer. This third opening would also be used to position the subsequent wafer and so only two openings are used per wafer. The spooled masks are secured to the extrusion head, and in alternative embodiments may be controlled by electrical or pneumatic connections to the wafers/carriers, or may be controlled by a geared mechanism.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

These and other features, aspects and advantages of the present invention will become better understood with regard to the following description, appended claims, and accompanying drawings, where:

FIG. 1 is a perspective view showing an extrusion apparatus according to a generalized embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 2 is a simplified diagram showing a system for producing wafer-based solar cells utilizing the extrusion apparatus of FIG. 1 according to another embodiment of the present invention;

FIGS. 3(A) and 3(F) are partial perspective views showing a semiconductor substrate during a fabrication process using the system of FIG. 2;

FIGS. 4(A) and 4(B) are perspective and plan views showing non-rectangular semiconductor substrates and associated masks according to another aspect of the present invention;

FIG. 5 is simplified cross-sectional side view showing a mask mounted on a semiconductor substrate according to a specific embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 6 is simplified cross-sectional side view showing a mask mounted on a wafer carrier according to another specific embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 7 is simplified cross-sectional side view showing a mask suspended between an extrusion head and a wafer according to another specific embodiment of the present invention;

FIGS. 8(A), 8(B) and 8(C) are top plan views showing a spooling mechanism for supporting a mask according to another specific embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 9 is simplified cross-sectional side view showing a mask connected to an extrusion head according to another specific embodiment of the present invention; and

FIG. 10 is a top plan view showing a mask including index markers for controlling a spooling process according to another alternative embodiment of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The present invention relates to an improvement in photovoltaic devices (e.g., solar cells) that can be used, for example, to convert solar power into electrical energy. The following description is presented to enable one of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the invention as provided in the context of a particular application and its requirements. As used herein, directional terms such as “upper”, “lower”, “side”, “front”, “rear”, are intended to provide relative positions for purposes of description, and are not intended to designate an absolute frame of reference. Various modifications to the preferred embodiment will be apparent to those with skill in the art, and the general principles defined herein may be applied to other embodiments. Therefore, the present invention is not intended to be limited to the particular embodiments shown and described, but is to be accorded the widest scope consistent with the principles and novel features herein disclosed.

FIG. 1 is a simplified perspective view showing an extrusion apparatus 100 utilized in the fabrication of large-area integrated circuits (e.g., wafer-based solar cells) according to a generalized embodiment of the present invention. Although the invention is described below with specific reference to the production of silicon wafer-based solar cells, those skilled in the art will recognize that the methods and structures described herein may also be used in the production of other large-area integrated circuits. Therefore, unless otherwise specifically limited, the appended claims are not intended to be directed solely to the fabrication of solar cells.

Extrusion apparatus 100 includes a support/movement mechanism 110 for supporting both a silicon wafer (semiconductor substrate) 101 and an extrusion head 130, and for moving extrusion head 130 relative to wafer 101 during the extrusion process in the manner described below. Consistent with conventional extrusion systems, extrusion head 130 is connected to an extrusion material source 111 by way of a suitable pump 113 that forces extrusion material 112 from source 111 through outlet orifices 135-1 to 135-4 of extrusion head 130, whereby multiple extruded material beads 112-1 to 112-4 are deposited to form extruded structures 120-21 to 120-24 on an upper surface 102 of wafer 101. A control circuit (controller) 140, which may be a microprocessor or application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), generates signals 141 for controlling the on/off operation of pump 113, and also to generate signals 142 for controlling the relative movement of extrusion head 130 and wafer 101 by way of support/moving mechanism 110.

As set forth in the specific embodiment below, extrusion apparatus 100 is utilized to deposit at least one of a dopant bearing material and metal line material onto wafer 101. In the example shown in FIG. 1, dopant bearing extrusion material beads 112-1 to 112-4 are deposited directly onto an upper surface 102 to form extruded structures 120-21 to 120-24, which are then subjected to thermal treatment to cause dopant (e.g., boron) contained in extruded structures 120-21 to 120-24 to diffuse into corresponding regions of wafer 101. These doped silicon regions form part of the p-n junction of the solar cell, and as such conduct electrons or holes during operation. In a similar manner, metal lines are extruded onto a passivation layer deposited over wafer 101. The metal lines are connected by metal via (connection) structures to the doped silicon regions, and serve to collect the current generate by the solar cell during operation. In each of these instances, it is important that the extruded materials do not extend to the edge of the wafer as this may cause potential electrical short circuit conditions between the opposing (i.e., upper and lower) surfaces of the wafer. Therefore, extrusion apparatus 100 must be capable of forming extrusion structures 120-21 to 120-24 such that are present only in the central “active” area 102-C of wafer 101 (i.e., not in peripheral areas 102-P1 and 102-P2). Further, extrusion structures 120-21 to 120-24 need to be “clean” (i.e., continuous/unbroken) for electrical conductivity reasons. However, conventional extrusion equipment has trouble creating clean extruded structures due to uneven flow of extruded material 112 during initiation and/or termination of the extrusion process.

In accordance with the present invention, extrusion apparatus 100 includes a mask 150 including a first portion 150-1 that is positioned over a first peripheral area 102-P1 of wafer 101, and a second peripheral portion 150-2 that is positioned over a second peripheral area 102-P2 of wafer 101. In addition, mask 150 defines a central opening 150-3 between an inside edge 150-1A of mask portion 150-1 and an inside edge 150-2A of mask portion 150-2. Central opening 150-3 is positioned over a central active area 102-C of wafer 101. Mask 150 comprises one or more of a plastic film, a metallic film, paper, or any other suitable material. Mask 150 may comprises two separate portions, as suggested in FIG. 1, or may be formed by a single sheet of material.

In accordance with an aspect of the present invention, mask 150 serves to prevent the deposition of material 112 on peripheral areas 102-P1 and 102-P2 of wafer 101 during the extrusion process. As illustrated in FIG. 1, because first portion 150-1 is disposed over peripheral area 102-P1, extruded structures 120-11 to 120-14 that are ejected from extrusion head 130 during an initial phase of the extrusion process (i.e., while extrusion head 130 is in a first position 130(T1)) (shown in dashed lines) are deposited on mask portion 150-1, and prevented from being deposited on peripheral area 102-P1. Similarly, because second portion 150-2 is disposed over peripheral area 102-P2, extruded structures 120-31 to 120-34 that are ejected from extrusion head 130 during a terminal phase of the extrusion process (i.e., while extrusion head 130 is in a second position 130(T3)) are deposited on mask portion 150-2, and prevented from being deposited on peripheral area 102-P2. By preventing the deposition of extrusion materials over peripheral areas 102-P1 and 102-P2, all conductive structures formed on or in surface 102 are offset from the peripheral edge of wafer 101 by a predetermined distance G1, thus avoiding potential short circuits between the opposing surfaces of wafer 101.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, mask 150 facilitates the formation of clean extrusion structures 120-1 to 120-4 by allowing the extrusion process to be initiated before extrusion head 130 is over central active region 102-C, and to be terminated after extrusion head 130 has passed over central active region 102-C. As illustrated in FIG. 1, in the present embodiment, the extrusion process is initiated just before extrusion head 130 is in position 130(T1). As such, discontinuous extruded structures that are sputtered and/or dripped from the outlet openings at the initiation of the extrusion process (e.g., structure 120-11 from outlet opening 135-1; see also structures 120-12 to 120-14) are captured by first mask portion 150-1. In this way, the flow from outlet openings 135-1 to 135-4 is fully stabilized by the time extrusion head 130 is over central active area 120-C (e.g., in position 130(T2), shown in dashed lines in FIG. 1). In addition, the extrusion process is terminated when extrusion head 130 is in position 130(T3) over second mask portion 150-2 (i.e., after extrusion head 130 is no longer over central active region 102-C). As such, discontinuous extruded structures that are sputtered and/or dripped from the outlet openings at the termination of the extrusion process (e.g., structure 120-31 from outlet opening 135-1; see also structures 120-32 to 120-34) are captured by second mask portion 150-2. In this way, the flow from outlet openings 135-1 to 135-4 can remain stable throughout the time extrusion head 130 is travel over central active area 102-C, thereby producing clean extruded structures 120-21 to 120-24 across central active region 102-C, whereby the formation of fragmented structures (e.g., structures 120-11 to 120-14 and 120-31 to 120-34) in active region 102-C is avoided.

In accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a mask alignment mechanism 145 is utilized to position mask 150 over wafer 101 such that central opening 150-3 is aligned over central region 102-C. As set forth in the specific embodiments below, mask alignment mechanism 145 may be an automated mechanical structure (e.g., a robotic apparatus controlled by controller 140), or may consist of an adhesive or fixture that holds mask 150 in the correct orientation relative to wafer 101 (i.e., in the manner described above and shown in FIG. 1).

FIG. 2 depicts a system 200 for fabricating wafer-based solar cells using extrusion apparatus 100 (FIG. 1) and other non-contact processing techniques in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention.

As indicated at the top of FIG. 2, the fabrication process utilizes a wafer processing apparatus 210 to form one or more doped regions (e.g., elongated doped region 101-1) in a wafer (substrate) 101, and then wafer 101 is further treated to include a blanket passivation (electrically insulating) layer 215. In one embodiment, wafer processing apparatus 210 utilizes extrusion apparatus 100 (FIG. 1) to form extruded dopant bearing material structures onto wafer 101. In other embodiment, wafer processing apparatus 210 utilizes the various techniques and structures described in co-owned and co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______, entitled “SOLAR CELL FABRICATION USING EXTRUDED DOPANT-BEARING MATERIALS” [Atty Docket No. 20060986-NP-US (XCP-078)], which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Once wafer processing is completed, passivation layer 215 is formed on upper surface 102 using known non-contact processing techniques. As referred to herein, the combined structure including wafer 101 and passivation layer 215 is generally as “device 201”, and at each stage of the processing cycle is referenced with an appended suffix indicating the device's current processing stage (e.g., after formation of passivation layer 215 and prior to the ablation process described below, device 201 is referenced as “device 201T1”, with the suffix “T1” indicating a relatively early point in the process cycle).

Device 201T1 is then subjected to various non-contact processes in order to produce a usable solar cell. First, as indicated at the bottom left portion of FIG. 2, a laser ablation apparatus 230 is utilized to define contact holes 217 through passivation layer 215 that expose corresponding portions of upper surface 102 of wafer 101 such that the contact holes are arranged in straight parallel rows over the doped diffusion regions. A suitable ablation process is described in additional detail in co-owned and co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/562,383 entitled “MULTIPLE STATION SCAN DISPLACEMENT INVARIANT LASER ABLATION APPARATUS”, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. After contact holes 217 are defined through passivation layer 215, partially processed wafers 201T2 are passed to a direct-write metallization apparatus 250 that is utilized to deposit contact structures 218 into contact holes 217. According to an embodiment of the present invention, extrusion apparatus 100 (FIG. 1) is then utilized to form metal interconnect lines 219 on passivation layer 215 such that each metal interconnect line 219 connects the contact structures 218 disposed over an associated doped diffusion region. Additional details and alternative embodiments related to direct-write metallization device 250 are disclosed in co-owned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/336,714, entitled “Solar Cell Production Using Non-Contact Patterning and Direct-Write Metallization”, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Finally, metallized device 201T3 is passed from direct-write metallization apparatus 250 to an optional post-metallization processing apparatus 270 for subsequent processing to form the completed solar cell 201T4.

FIGS. 1 and 3(A) to 3(F) illustrate various process steps for fabricating a wafer-based solar cell device using system 200 (FIG. 2) according to a specific embodiment of the present invention.

Referring again to FIG. 1, the fabrication process begins by the extrusion of dopant bearing material (ink) beads 112-1, 112-2, 112-3 and 112-4, which form extruded structures 120-21, 120-22, 120-23 and 120-24 on wafer 101. As described above, extruded structures 120-21, 120-22, 120-23 and 120-24 are respectively disposed on corresponding surface areas located in central active area 102-C (e.g., extruded structures 120-21 and 120-22 are respectively formed on surface areas 102-C1 and 102-C2) such that adjacent pairs of extruded structures are respectively separated by corresponding exposed surface areas.

FIG. 3(A) shows wafer 101 during a subsequent thermal treatment (heating) process using a thermal processing apparatus 160, whereby dopant from each of extruded structures 120-21, 120-22, 120-23 and 120-24 is diffused into wafer 101. Specifically, the dopant contained in the dopant ink diffuses through surface 102 to form (e.g., p-type) doped regions 101-C1, 101-C2, 101-C3 and 101-C4. Note that each doped region (e.g., doped region 101-C1) is separated from all adjacent doped regions (e.g., doped region 101-C2) by a region of lightly doped or intrinsic silicon.

FIG. 3(B) depicts an optional process of removing residual dopant ink from surface 102 over doped regions 101-C1 to 101-C4 after the heating/diffusion process is completed. This ink removal step may be avoided by utilizing dopant inks having vehicles that burn off during the heating/diffusion process. Note that each of the doped diffusion regions 101-C1, 101-C1, 101-C3 and 101-C4 extends to upper surface 102.

FIG. 3(C) illustrates the subsequent formation of a passivation layer 215 on upper surface 102 of wafer 101, thereby providing partially formed device 201-T1 (described above with reference to FIG. 2).

FIG. 3(D) illustrates a subsequent laser ablation process during which laser pulses LP are used to remove portions of passivation layer 215 such that contact openings 217 are defined that expose portions of surface 102 disposed over doped regions 101-C1 to 101-C4. For example, contact openings 217-11 and 217-12 extend through passivation layer 215 to corresponding portions of surface 102 that are disposed over doped region 101-C1. Similarly, contact openings 217 are formed that extend through passivation layer 215 to surface areas disposed over doped regions 101-C2, 101-C3, and 101-C4. The laser ablation process is performed using laser ablation apparatus 230, which is described above with reference to FIG. 2.

FIG. 3(E) depicts the sequential deposition of contact material M1 from direct-write metallization apparatus 250 (FIG. 2) into each opening 217 formed in passivation layer 215 such that contact structures 218 are formed directly on exposed portions of wafer 101. For example, contact structures 218-11 and 218-12 are inserted into contact openings 217-11 and 217-12, respectively, and contact portions of surface 102 that are disposed over doped region 101-C1. Similarly, contact structures 218 are formed in each contact opening 217 disposed over doped regions 101-C2, 101-C3, and 101-C4.

FIG. 3(F) illustrates a subsequent process of depositing metal material M2 in a manner that forms metal line structures 219-1 to 219-4 on an upper surface of passivation layer 215 using a mask 150B in a manner similar to that described above with reference to FIG. 1. In particular, mask 150B includes a first portion 150B-1 disposed over peripheral region 215-P1, a second peripheral portion 150B-2 disposed over peripheral portion 215-P2, and a central opening 150B-3 defined between portions 150B-1 and 150B-2 (i.e., over the central active region of wafer 101). Metal line material M2 is then extruded in the manner described above such that each metal line structure 219-1 to 219-4 contacts a group of contact structures that are disposed over a corresponding one of doped regions 101-C1 to 101-C4. For example, metal line structure 219-1 contacts the upper end of contact structures 218-11 and 218-12, whereby an electrical connection is provided between doped region 101-C1 and metal line structure 219-1 by way of contact structures 218-11 and 218-12. Similarly, each of metal line structures 219-2, 219-3 and 219-4 are electrically connected to doped regions 101-C2, 101-C3 and 101-C3 by way of corresponding contact structures.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, as set forth below with reference to FIGS. 4(A) and 4(B), even if conventional extrusion systems could be controlled to cleanly start and stop the extruded structures to avoid the electrical shorting and fragmentation problems described above, the masking approach described herein would still be useful in that it would facilitate the reliable and economic production of non-rectangular (e.g., round or octagonal) solar cells.

FIG. 4(A) is a simplified perspective view showing a mask 150C for forming a solar cell on a circular wafer (substrate) 101C, and in particular for forming one of dopant bearing extrusion structures and metal line structures (collectively referred to as extruded structures 120/219-2) in the manner described above. Note that, as in the case of rectangular substrates, extruded structures 120/219-2 must be restricted to a central circular active area 102C-3, and must not be deposited in a predetermined annular peripheral area 102C-1 (indicated by shading) that surrounds active area 102C-3. To facilitate extrusion only in active area 102C-3, mask 150C includes a first peripheral area 150C-1 that is located on an upstream end of a circular central opening 150C-3, and a second peripheral portion 150C-2 that is located on a downstream end of central opening 150C-3. Central opening 150C-3 is sized and positioned to expose only central active area 102C-3 during the extrusion process. Note that the nozzles (outlet orifices) of conventional extrusion heads are not individually controllable, and extruded structures 120/219-1 start at the same point (i.e., along line L1) and terminate at the same point (i.e., along line L2), thus making conventional extrusion heads incapable of printing non-rectangular regions. As indicated in the upper portion of FIG. 4(A), by providing mask 150C with circular central opening 150C-3, extruded structures 120/219-1 are deposited on first peripheral area 150C-1 such that the leading edges of extruded structures 120/219-2 are aligned along a curved edge 102C-11 of peripheral area 102C-1, and extruded structures 120/219-3 are deposited on second peripheral area 150C-2 such that the trailing edges of extruded structures 120/219-2 are aligned along curved edge 102C-12 of peripheral area 102C-1 adjacent to second peripheral area 150C-2. Thus, by utilizing mask 150C, the extruded material that is allowed to pass through central opening 150C-3 and deposit on wafer 101C is shaped to match active area 102C-3 without requiring individual control of the extrusion nozzles, thus facilitating the use of conventional extrusion heads, which only extrude a uniform rectangular pattern, to form non-rectangular two-dimensional extrusion patterns.

FIG. 4(B) is a simplified plan view depicting a second example including a wafer 101D having a non-rectangular (octagonal) active area 102D-3 surrounded by an octagonal peripheral area 102D-1, and a corresponding mask 150D defining an octagonal central opening 150D-3. As in the previous examples, mask 150D prevents the formation of extruded structures 120/219 on any portion of wafer 101D other than octagonal active area 102D-3.

FIGS. 5, 6 and 7 are cross-sectional side views showing extrusion apparatus 100 in additional detail according to various specific embodiments of the present invention. During the extrusion process each wafer is typically attached to a carrier that moves under the extrusion head (e.g., using a vacuum chuck). In a possible embodiment depicted in FIG. 5, wafer 101 is mounted on a carrier 170A, and mask 150 is attached directly to the peripheral area of wafer 101 using, for example, a suitable adhesive. However, this embodiment is not favored due to the wafer's fragility and the relatively small peripheral areas (margins) of the wafer that are to be screened off by mask 150. FIG. 6 shows a more preferable embodiment in which mask 150 is attached to carrier 170B such that mask 150 is held over wafer 101. Carrier 170B could be built with attachment points or other fixtures for securing mask 150, and a new mask could be fitted over each new wafer that is placed carrier 170B. Alternatively, as depicted in FIG. 7, a suspension mechanism 180 may be utilized to suspend mask 150 between extrusion head 130 and wafer 101/carrier 170A.

Individually attaching and removing the mask for each wafer would also be difficult. FIGS. 8(A) to 8(C) are simplified top views depicting another embodiment in which a series of masks are linked together by a single belt 150E, and are rolled from a first (cylindrical) spool 190-1 positioned on one side of wafer 101 to a second spool 190-2 located on the other side of wafer 101. In this embodiment, each time a new wafer 101 is placed (e.g., in a carrier) under a corresponding mask, the spools could wind to position the next (clean) mask over the new wafer. As depicted in FIGS. 8(A) to 8(C), to allow easy placement of a new wafer onto a carrier for extrusion, mask belt 150E could have two openings for each wafer. FIG. 8(A) depicts a first, relatively large opening 150E-1A that has a corresponding opening 150E-13 that is large enough to allow placement of wafer 101 through opening 150E-13 onto the carrier. After wafer 101 is placed, as indicated in FIG. 8(B), belt 150E is rolled to position a second mask 150E-2 over wafer 101, where mask 150E-2 has a smaller opening 150E-23 that exposes only the active area of wafer 101 in the manner described above. Once the extrusion process is completed, as indicated in FIG. 8(C), belt 150E is rolled again to position a next sequential mask 150E-1B over wafer 101, thereby allowing removal of wafer 101 and placement of a new wafer. Thus, in this embodiment, spools 190-1 and 190-2 would advance twice for each wafer. Note that, as in the above examples, extruded structures are omitted from the peripheral area of wafer 101 (e.g., peripheral area 102-1).

A mechanism of spooling masks across the wafer will likely require electrical or pneumatic connections to each of the carriers. In an alternative embodiment, a geared mechanism may be used in which a cog in the bottom of the wafer carrier engages a rack, and the motion of the carrier spools the mask when needed. But without electrical connections, monitoring the state of the mask feed spool (e.g. noting that it is close to empty) would be difficult. In any case, all these solutions would significantly complicate the carrier design.

FIG. 9 is simplified cross-sectional side view showing a mask belt 150F connected to an extrusion head mount (gantry) 200 according to another specific embodiment of the present invention. This embodiment provides a solution to the above-mentioned problems by keeping spools 190-1 and 190-2 in a fixed location (i.e., attached to gantry 200) that is already cabled (i.e., electrically connected to the system controller. This arrangement prevents the need for double spooling, since the presence of each mask on mask belt 150F will not impact the loading and unloading of the wafers. Obviously the mask motion must be synchronized with the passage of the wafers. One possible method for achieving this synchronization is shown in FIG. 10, where optically readable index markers 155-1 and 155-2 are provided on mask belt 150F to provide position feedback to the spool motors regarding the position of mask openings 150F-12 and 150F-23. A similar marker may also be used to signal how many unused masks remain on the belt.

Although the present invention has been described with respect to certain specific embodiments, it will be clear to those skilled in the art that the inventive features of the present invention are applicable to other embodiments as well, all of which are intended to fall within the scope of the present invention. For example, although the invention is described with reference to masks that have respective portions covering the leading and trailing end of a wafer, a mask may be beneficially used that includes only one of these portions, although this may expose the un-masked end of the wafer to the shorting problem described above. Further, although the invention is described with specific reference to solar cells having an integrated back contact (IBC) cell geometry (i.e., including elongated doped regions 214), the present invention may also be utilized to produce other solar cell types. 

1. A method for fabricating an integrated circuit on a semiconductor substrate, the method comprising: aligning a mask between an extrusion head and the semiconductor substrate such that a first peripheral portion of the mask is positioned over a first peripheral area of the semiconductor substrate, a second peripheral portion of the mask is positioned over a second peripheral area of the semiconductor substrate, and a central opening defined between the first and second peripheral portions is positioned over a central area of the semiconductor substrate disposed between the first and second peripheral areas; moving the extrusion head relative to the semiconductor substrate such that a plurality of outlet orifices defined in the extrusion head are moved from a first position over the first peripheral area to a second position over the second peripheral area, whereby such the plurality of outlet orifices pass over the central area of the semiconductor substrate; and extruding a material such that said material is continuously extruded through the plurality of outlet orifices while the extrusion head is moved from the first position to the second position, whereby the extruded material forms a plurality of elongated extruded structures on the central area of the semiconductor substrate.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein controlling extrusion comprises initiating said extrusion when the extrusion head is in the first position, and terminating said extrusion when the extrusion head is in the second position.
 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising heating the plurality of elongated extruded structures such that a dopant contained in said plurality of elongated extruded structures diffuses into the semiconductor substrate, thereby forming a plurality of doped regions.
 4. The method according to claim 3, further comprising: depositing a passivation layer on a surface of the semiconductor substrate over the plurality of doped regions, laser ablating portions of the passivation layer such that a plurality of contact openings are defined through the passivation layer to each of the plurality of doped regions, depositing a conductive contact structure into each of the contact openings using a direct-write metallization apparatus, and depositing metal line structures onto an upper surface of the passivation layer such that each metal line structure contacts a group of said contact structures that are disposed over a corresponding one of said doped regions.
 5. The method according to claim 4, wherein depositing said metal line structures comprises positioning a second mask over said substrate and extruding metal line material over said passivation layer.
 6. The method according to claim 1, further comprising depositing a passivation layer on a surface of the semiconductor substrate before extruding said material.
 7. The method according to claim 1, wherein aligning said mask comprises attaching said mask to said semiconductor substrate.
 8. The method according to claim 1, further comprising attaching said semiconductor substrate to a carrier, wherein aligning said mask comprises attaching said mask to said carrier.
 9. The method according to claim 1, further comprising attaching said semiconductor substrate to a carrier, wherein aligning said mask comprises suspending the mask between the carrier and the extrusion head.
 10. The method according to claim 1, wherein aligning said mask comprises: mounting a mask belt having a first portion wound around a first spool and a second portion wound around a second spool, and rotating the first and second spools such that a mask opening defined in the mask belt is positioned over the central area of the semiconductor substrate.
 11. The method according to claim 10, wherein the mask belt defines a large mask opening and a small mask opening, and wherein aligning said mask comprises: positioning the mask belt such that the large mask opening is located over a carrier; placing said semiconductor substrate on said carrier through said large mask opening; and positioning the mask belt such that the small mask opening is located over the semiconductor substrate prior to extruding said material.
 12. A method for fabricating an integrated circuit on a semiconductor substrate, the method comprising: aligning a mask between an extrusion head and the semiconductor substrate such that a first peripheral portion of the mask is positioned over a first peripheral area of the semiconductor substrate, and a central opening defined by the first peripheral portions is positioned over a central area of the semiconductor substrate; moving the extrusion head relative to the semiconductor substrate such that a plurality of outlet orifices defined in the extrusion head are moved from a first position over the first peripheral area to a second position, whereby such the plurality of outlet orifices pass over the central area of the semiconductor substrate; and extruding a material such that said material is continuously extruded through the plurality of outlet orifices while the extrusion head is moved from the first position to the second position, whereby the extruded material forms a plurality of elongated extruded structures on the central area of the semiconductor substrate.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein controlling extrusion comprises initiating said extrusion when the extrusion head is in the first position, and terminating said extrusion after said plurality of outlet orifices have passed over the central area.
 14. The method of claim 12, further comprising heating the plurality of elongated extruded structures such that a dopant contained in said plurality of elongated extruded structures diffuses into the semiconductor substrate, thereby forming a plurality of doped regions.
 15. The method according to claim 14, further comprising: depositing a passivation layer on a surface of the semiconductor substrate over the plurality of doped regions, laser ablating portions of the passivation layer such that a plurality of contact openings are defined through the passivation layer to each of the plurality of doped regions, depositing a conductive contact structure into each of the contact openings using a direct-write metallization apparatus, and depositing metal line structures onto an upper surface of the passivation layer such that each metal line structure contacts a group of said contact structures that are disposed over a corresponding one of said doped regions.
 16. The method according to claim 15, wherein depositing said metal line structures comprises positioning a second mask over said substrate and extruding metal line material over said passivation layer.
 17. The method according to claim 12, further comprising depositing a passivation layer on a surface of the semiconductor substrate before extruding said material.
 18. The method according to claim 12, wherein aligning said mask comprises attaching said mask to said semiconductor substrate.
 19. The method according to claim 1, further comprising attaching said semiconductor substrate to a carrier prior to aligning said mask, wherein aligning said mask comprises attaching said mask to said carrier.
 20. The method according to claim 12, further comprising attaching said semiconductor substrate to a carrier, wherein aligning said mask comprises suspending the mask between the carrier and the extrusion head. 